By ERIK CHICONELLI GOMES*

Commentary on the Book of Antonio Scurati, newly translated

1.

In the third volume of his monumental tetralogy on Benito Mussolini and Italian fascism, Antonio Scurati addresses the critical period from 1938 to 1940. These years represent not only the height of the fascist regime, but also the beginning of its irreversible decline. The work is part of the tradition of documented historical narrative, combining factual rigor with an approach that privileges both major political events and the everyday experiences of ordinary people affected by the regime.

The narrative begins in May 1938, an emblematic moment when Mussolini, accompanied by Vittorio Emanuele III and his son-in-law Galeazzo Ciano, awaits the arrival of Hitler on an official visit to Italy. This opening scene establishes what would become the central theme of the book: the progressive subordination of Italian fascism to German Nazism, in a process that would culminate in Italy's catastrophic entry into the Second World War.

Antonio Scurati reconstructs with remarkable precision the mental state of the Italian dictator at this decisive moment: “With feverish precision and an engaging narrative, Antonio Scurati reconstructs the frightening delirium of Benito Mussolini, pathetically deluded into thinking that he could influence the Führer’s decisions” (p. 14). This illusion of equality between the two dictators constitutes the first great self-deception of the period, revealing the fragility of a regime that based its legitimacy on the image of strength and domination.

The annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany, which occurred shortly before Hitler's visit, represented a turning point in Italian-German relations. Italy, which had previously positioned itself as the protector of Austrian independence, now not only passively accepted the Connection, but began a process of emulation of Nazi policies that would culminate in the promulgation of Italian racial laws.

The racial laws, described by the author as “of unprecedented severity”, are presented not as an external imposition, but as a deliberate choice of the fascist regime. Antonio Scurati avoids simplistic explanations and investigates the multiple factors that led to the adoption of this policy, from diplomatic considerations to the ideological contradictions of Italian fascism itself, which did not have anti-Semitism as a central element in its origins.

Antonio Scurati’s treatment of the implementation of racial laws is particularly revealing of his methodology. The author does not limit himself to narrating the decisions taken in the circles of power, but examines the various social reactions to these measures. From the intellectual elite who tried to justify them “scientifically” to the Jewish citizens who were suddenly transformed into pariahs, the book maps the impact of these policies on the different strata of Italian society.

The figure of Galeazzo Ciano, Mussolini's son-in-law and foreign minister, emerges as a central element of the narrative. Through Ciano's famous diaries, Antonio Scurati reveals the regime's growing internal divergences regarding its pro-German orientation. These internal tensions rarely come to light in official histories of fascism, which tend to present it as a monolithic bloc.

2.

As Europe moved inexorably towards war, the book exposes the fragmentation of the ideological unity of Italian fascism. The divisions between “Germanophiles” and “Anglophiles” within the regime reveal how its foreign policy was driven less by conviction than by opportunism and, increasingly, by Benito Mussolini’s personal vanity and voluntarism.

The decision to enter the war, taken in June 1940 after the fall of France, is reconstructed by Antonio Scurati in all its contradictory dimensions. The author contrasts the grandiose rhetoric of the famous speech about the “hour of irrevocable decisions” with the concrete knowledge that Mussolini himself had about the country’s unpreparedness:

In this third volume of his great literary project, Antonio Scurati frames the fateful three-year period from 1938 to 1940, the height of the self-deception of fascist Italy, which bowed to the infamy of racial laws and the alliance with Nazi Germany, and reconstructs the last days of a Europe shaken by acts of barbaric abuse and incapable of escaping the curse of totalitarianism. (p. 8)

One of the most valuable aspects of Antonio Scurati’s work is his ability to reconnect major political decisions with everyday experiences. Through diverse characters – from high-ranking officials to ordinary citizens – the author demonstrates how the regime’s policies reshaped the daily lives of Italians: from school education to family relationships, from work practices to forms of leisure.

Totalitarianism thus emerges not only as a formal political system, but as a force that permeates and modifies all dimensions of social experience. This approach avoids the reification of fascism as a purely ideological or institutional phenomenon, revealing it as a complex social practice, sustained by multiple actors and interests.

In his treatment of the period's international relations, Antonio Scurati avoids both determinism and simplistic voluntarism. The escalation to war is presented as the result of a complex interplay between structural factors—Italy's geopolitical position, its limited industrial base, its needs for raw materials—and concrete political choices made by individuals in specific circumstances.

3.

The book pays special attention to the transformation of Benito Mussolini's own public image during this critical period. The dictator who had built his legitimacy on the projection of strength and vitality began to show signs of exhaustion, both physical and political. The growing gap between propaganda and reality, between imperialist rhetoric and the country's actual capabilities, became a recurring theme.

This transformation is particularly visible in the famous speech declaring war, delivered from the balcony of the Palazzo Venezia. Antonio Scurati reconstructs not only the content of the words of the Duce, but the complete scenario: the crowd gathered in the square, the diverse reactions among those present, the behind-the-scenes preparation of the event. The result is a multidimensional analysis of this decisive moment, which avoids both glorification and simplification.

The international context is another strong point of the work. Fascist Italy is presented in its relations with other European powers – not only Nazi Germany, but also France, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union. These relations are analyzed in both diplomatic and cultural terms, highlighting the mutual perceptions and imaginaries that informed political decisions.

The final chapters of the book, which narrate Italy’s first military operations after entering the war, serve as a tragic epilogue. The contrast between expectations of a “parallel war” – in which Italy would fight alongside Germany but maintain strategic autonomy – and the reality of a country ill-prepared for modern conflict anticipates the fate of fascism in the years to come.

The value of Antonio Scurati’s work transcends the historical interest in Italian fascism. As the author himself suggests, it is “a tragic and powerful novel, which also serves as a warning sign for our future” (p. 9). The analysis of the social, cultural and political mechanisms that allowed the rise and persistence of fascism offers important reflections on the vulnerabilities of contemporary democracies.

Antonio Scurati's narrative methodology, which combines rigorous documentary research with literary techniques, results in a history of fascism “from the bottom up” – one that does not limit itself to major characters and events, but seeks to understand how authoritarian power materialized in ordinary lives and was experienced by different social groups.

This third volume of the tetralogy thus consolidates itself as a fundamental contribution not only to the historical understanding of fascism, but also as a reflection on the social mechanisms that make authoritarian regimes possible. By reconstructing the last days of a Europe on the brink of the abyss, Antonio Scurati offers us not only a narrative about the past, but also a warning about the political dynamics of the present.

*Erik Chiconelli Gomes is a post-doctorate from the Faculty of Law at USP and academic coordinator of the Research and Studies Center at the Higher School of Law (ESA/OABSP).

Reference

Antonio Scurati. Mussolini: The Last Days of Europe. Translation: Marcello Lino. New York: Routledge, 2025, 384 pages.https://amzn.to/3GylyBR]

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